Accounting Cycle

Introduction to an Account

An account represents a document used to record all similar transactions. It consists of a title, a debit column, and a credit column. The left side of an account is the debit side, and the right side of the account is the credit side. The balance of an account is determined by subtracting the smaller sum (debit or credit) from the larger sum. Initially, all transactions are recorded in a journal in a process known as journalizing. When the information recorded in the journal is transferred to the individual accounts, this process is known as posting. Total debits and credits of any transaction must always be equal

A single account is often called a T account because of its appearance as a T. When several related accounts grouped together is called a ledger. Accounts whose balance is carried forward from period to period are known as real accounts or balance sheet accounts. In a double entry accounting system, all journal entries require a debit entry in one account to be simulatously matched by an equal credit entry in another account. A journal entry composed of more than one debit or credit is a compound journal entry.

Rules for Increasing & Decreasing Accounts

The following are rules for increasing and decreasing accounts.

1. Asset accounts normally have debit balances and are increased by debits.
2. Liability accounts normally have credit balances and are increased by credits.
3. Owner's equity accounts normally have credit balances and are increased by credits.
4. Revenue accounts are increased when credited.
5. Expense accounts are increased when debited.
   

Income Statement Accounts

Income statement accounts have a direct effect on the balance of owner's equity. Expense accounts decrease owner's equity, while revenue accounts increase owner's equity. The net gain or loss is determined by subtracting expenses from revenues. At the end of a financial period, all expense and revenue accounts are closed to a summarizing account usually called Income Summary. For this reason, all income statement accounts are considered to be temporary or nominal.

Normal Account Balances

Assets, drawing, dividends, and expense accounts normally have debit balances. Liabilities, owner's equity, retained earnings, and revenue accounts normally have credit balances. There can be special circumstances where accounts will not have a normal balance, but this usually is an indication of an error.

Balance Sheet Accounts

Balance sheet accounts are classified as assets, liabilities, or owner's equity. Income statement accounts are classified as either expenses or revenues. Assets are divided into two categories, depending upon their expected life. Current assets are those that are usually sold or consumed within a year. Fixed assets are held for periods longer than a year. Among fixed assets, plant assets depreciate, while land does not. Liabilities are also divided into two categories: current, for those payable within a year, and long-term, for those with maturities beyond one year.

Current assets typically include cash, notes receivable, accounts receivable, inventories and prepaid expenses (such as insurance premiums). Fixed assets typically include property, plant and equipment, investments, patents and tradmarks. Both tangible and intangible items can be assets, provided they have some monetary value. Current liabilities include bank credit outstanding, accounts payable, interes payable, wages payable and taxes payable. Long term liabilities include loans beyond one year, notes and bonds issued by company.

Classifying Balance Sheet Accounts

Owner's equity is the portion that remains after liabilities are subtracted from assets. For a sole proprietorship or partnership, capital represents the owner's equity. For a corporation, capital stock is the investment made by stockholders. Retained earnings represent net income that a corporation retains. Dividends are earnings of a corporation that are distributed to shareholders. Drawings represent assets taken out by owners of proprietorships or partnerships. Drawings and dividends reduce owner's equity.

Classifying Income Statement Accounts

Revenues increase the value of owner's equity. Revenues include sales, fees earned, services, interest income and rental income. For businesses with more than one source of income, it is recommended to maintain separate accounts. Expenses vary for different businesses, and they should be classified according to the size and type of expense.

Chart Of Accounts

All accounts of a business should be listed in a chart of accounts. Usually the accounts are classified as

1. assets,
2. liabilities,
3. owner's equity,
4. revenue, and
5. expenses.
   

Accounts appear in the general ledger in a sequential order of the chart of accounts. The first digit of a number in the chart of accounts indicates the major division in which the account is placed. A second number of an account represents a specific category When the general ledger is first prepared and account balances from the previous period are entered, this is known as opening the ledger.

The Flow of Data

The accounting data normally follows a normal pattern of flow. Its order is

1. the actual business transaction requires the preparation of documentation,
2. the entry for the transaction is recorded in the journal, and
3. the journal entry is posted to the ledger.
   

The Two Column Journal

Of all types of journals, the two column journal is the simplest to use. It has a debit column and a credit column used for recording all initial transactions. Before a transaction is entered into a journal, it is necessary to determine the following:

1. which accounts will be affected,
2. whether the affected account increases or decreases, and
3. whether the transaction should be recorded as a debit or credit.
   

An explanation of the transaction is desirable.

When journalizing entries it is customary to enter the accounts numbers and exact name of the accounts to be debited and credited, to write in the debit portion first above the credit portion, and to indent slightly the credit entry. The complete date of a transaction must always appear. Most often expense account will have only debit entries, revenue accounts only credit entries, while balance sheets accounts may have either.

Three-Column & Four-Column Accounts

Three-column and four-column accounts are often used instead of two-column accounts. The purpose of the additional columns is to keep running balances of both debits and credits in the four-column account, or a net of the two in the three-column account. All accounts, as well as most accounting forms used to record transactions, often have a posting reference column. In the journal, the posting reference column is used to record the account number. In the individual account, the posting reference (also called journal reference) is used to record the page number of the journal where the entry was made.

Three-column and four-column accounts must show their account number and name, year and month, at the top of each page. Three-column and four-column accounts are most conveniently used in computer based accounting since debit and credit balances are automatically calculated.

The Trial Balance & Errors

The trial balance is a list of accounts with their debit or credit balances. It is usually prepared at the end of an accounting period. The advantages of using a trial balance are:

1. it reveals mathematical errors since total debits must equal total credits, and
2. it assists in the preparation of financial statements. It should be noted, however, that trial balances cannot detect every type of error.
   

The first step in preparing a trial balance is to calculate the balance of each of the accounts in the general ledger. Some of the errors that the trial balance will not reveal are for instance:

• journalizing a transaction twice,
• forgetting to record a transaction,
• entering an erroneous but identical amount in debit and credit,
• posting part of a transaction as a debit or credit to the wrong account.
  

Errors that cause the trial balance not to balance are

• the beginning amount of an account was incorrectly recorded,
• a debit entry was posted as a credit entry,
• a debit or credit balance was omitted,
• a digit in a number was moved one or more spaces (known as slide).
  

Determining the amount of the difference between debit and credit can help to look for such amount. For instance, when a debit and a credit were interchanged, the trial balance difference will be twice this amount.

written by John Petroff